Nondestructive inspection - test methods handbook 1CD*

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Nondestructive inspection - test methods handbook 1CD*

NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION - TEST METHODS
NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION - TEST METHODS on CD
Nondestructive Inspection NDI is the inspection of a structure or component in any manner that will not impair its future usefulness.
The purpose of the inspection may be to detect flaws, measure geometric characteristics, determine material structure or composition, or it may characterize physical, electrical, or thermal properties without causing any changes in the part.
The five standard NDI disciplines include:
CHAPTER 1 - NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION METHODS, GENERAL INFORMATION
CHAPTER 2 - LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION METHOD
CHAPTER 3 - MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION METHOD
CHAPTER 4 - EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION METHOD
CHAPTER 5 - ULTRASONIC INSPECTION METHOD
CHAPTER 6 - RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION METHOD
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NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION - TEST METHODS
1 NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION METHODS, GENERAL INFORMATION .1-1
SECTION I NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION NDI METHODS .1-1
1.1 Why We Do Nondestructive Inspection NDI.1-1
1.1.1 Nondestructive Inspection Data .1-1
1.1.2 Structural Management Programs.1-1
1.1.3 Mechanisms for Using NDI Data .1-1
1.1.4 Tools for Gathering NDI Data.1-2
SECTION II PERSONNEL TRAINING QUALIFICATION CERTIFICATION .1-3
1.2 Personnel TrainingQualificationCertification .1-3
1.2.1 Training Introduction.1-3
1.2.2 Training Requirements .1-3
1.2.3 Certification Requirements.1-3
1.2.4 Physical Requirements .1-3
1.2.5 Requirement for Special Task Certification and Recurring Training.1-3
SECTION III REPORTING NEW OR IMPROVED NDI TECHNIQUES .1-5
1.3 Reporting NewImproved Nondestructive Inspection Techniques .1-5
1.3.1 Need for Reporting New and Improved Techniques .1-5
1.3.5 Responsibilities for Updating Techniques .1-5
1.3.6 AFTO Form 242 Entries .1-6
SECTION IV NDI EQUIPMENT .1-9
1.4 Procuring NDI Equipment AIR FORCE Only .1-9
1.4.1 Centrally Procured NDI Equipment.1-9
1.4.2 Weapon System SpecificSpecial Purpose Equipment.1-9
1.4.3 Local Purchase Equipment.1-9
SECTION V PROCESS CONTROL.1-10
1.5.1 Reason for Controlling the Process .1-10
1.5.2 Scope of Process Control .1-10
1.5.3 Process Control Documentation Requirements .1-12
1.5.4 Establishing a Documentation Method.1-12
1.5.5 Suggested Documentation Method .1-12
SECTION VI LABORATORY INFORMATION .1-13
1.6 General Laboratory Information .1-13
1.6.1 Constructing a Nondestructive Inspection Laboratory.1-13
1.6.2 Building Requirements .1-13
1.6.3 Electrical and Mechanical Requirements.1-14
1.6.4 Room Identification.1-15
2 LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION METHOD .2-1
SECTION I LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION METHOD .2-1
2.1 General Capabilities of Liquid Penetrant Inspection .2-1
2.1.1 Introduction to Liquid Penetrant Inspection.2-1
2.1.2 Background of Liquid Penetrant Inspection.2-1
2.1.3 Why Use Liquid Penetrant Inspection.2-1
2.1.4 Limitations of Liquid Penetrant Inspection .2-1
2.1.5 Advantages of Liquid Penetrant Inspection.2-2
2.1.6 Disadvantages of Liquid Penetrant Inspection .2-2
2.1.7 Basic Penetrant Inspection Process.2-3
2.1.8 Personnel Requirements .2-4
2.1.9 Understanding Penetrant Classification and Processes .2-4
2.1.10 Qualification of Penetrant Material .2-9
2.1.11 Qualification of Penetrant Sensitivity.2-9
2.1.12 Penetrant Material Performance.2-9
SECTION II PRINCIPLES AND THEORY OF LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION.2-11
2.2 Principles and Theory of Liquid Penetrant Inspection .2-11
2.2.2 Characteristics of a Penetrant.2-11
2.2.3 Mechanisms of Penetrant Action .2-11
2.2.4 How Liquid Penetrant Enters Discontinuities .2-17
2.2.5 Mechanisms and Principles of Penetrant Removal .2-17
2.2.6 Mechanisms of Developer Action .2-21
2.2.7 Cleaning and Surface Preparation.2-22
2.2.8 Surface Conditions Affecting Penetrant Inspection .2-22
2.2.9 Contaminants and Soils.2-22
2.2.11 Effects of Surface Deformation, Wear, and Surface Roughness on Penetrant Inspection .2-29
SECTION III LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION EQUIPMENT.2-31
2.3.2 Portable Equipment .2-31
2.3.3 Stationary Inspection Equipment - General Purpose .2-31
2.3.4 Small Parts Inspection Systems .2-31
2.3.5 Automated Inspection Systems .2-31
2.3.7 Process Control Equipment.2-35
SECTION IV LIQUID PENETRANT APPLICATION METHODS .2-36
2.4.2 Basic Penetrant Processes .2-36
2.4.4 Pre-Cleaning Preformed by NDI Personnel .2-41
2.4.5 Penetrant Application .2-42
2.4.6 Temperature Limitations .2-44
2.4.8 Penetrant Removal.2-53
2.4.9 Water WashingRinsing Technique .2-64
2.4.11 Application of Developers .2-67
2.4.12 Post-Cleaning After Penetrant Inspection.2-76
2.4.13 Protection of Parts Following Penetrant Inspection.2-77
SECTION V INTERPRETATION OF LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION .2-78
2.5 Interpretation of Indications .2-78
2.5.2 Importance of Understanding the Interpretation Process .2-78
2.5.3 Personnel Requirements .2-78
2.5.5 Inspection Conditions .2-83
2.5.6 Evaluating Indications .2-83
SECTION VI PROCESS CONTROL OF LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION.2-92
2.6 Liquid Penetrant Process Control .2-92
2.6.2 Need for Process Quality .2-92
2.6.3 Why Test New Materials .2-92
2.6.4 Why Test In-Use Materials.2-92
2.6.5 Causes of Material Degradation.2-92
2.6.6 Establishing Work Center Process Control Intervals.2-93
2.6.7 Process Control Equipment.2-93
2.6.8 Process Control Requirement.2-96
2.6.9 Control of New Materials .2-101
2.6.10 Testing In-Use Materials.2-102
SECTION VII SPECIAL PURPOSE LIQUID PENETRANTS .2-118
2.7 Special Purpose Liquid Penetrant .2-118
2.7.2 Liquid Oxygen LOX Compatible Penetrants.2-118
2.7.3 Low Sulfur, Low Chlorine Penetrant Systems.2-119
2.7.4 High Temperature Penetrant Materials.2-119
2.7.5 Dye Precipitation Penetrant Systems .2-119
2.7.6 Reversed Fluorescence Method .2-119
2.7.7 Thixotropic Penetrant .2-120
2.7.8 Dilution Expansion Developers .2-120
2.7.9 Plastic-Film Developers .2-120
SECTION VIII LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION SAFETY.2-121
2.8 Liquid Penetrant Inspection Safety.2-121
2.8.1 Safety Requirements.2-121
2.8.2 General Precautions.2-121
2.8.3 Personal Protection Equipment .2-121
2.8.6 UV-A Black Light Hazards.2-122
3 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION METHOD .3-1
SECTION I MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION METHOD .3-1
3.1 General Capabilities of Magnetic Particle Inspection.3-1
3.1.1 Introduction to Magnetic Particle Inspection MPI .3-1
3.1.2 Benefit of Magnetic Particle Inspection .3-1
3.1.3 Basic Concept of Magnetic Particle Inspection .3-1
SECTION II MAGNETIC PARTICLE PRINCIPLES AND THEORY.3-2
3.2 Principles and Theory of Magnetic Particle Inspection .3-2
3.2.1 Principles of Magnetization .3-2
3.2.2 Basic Terminology .3-2
3.2.3 Magnetic Field Characteristics.3-3
3.2.4 Currents Used to Generate Magnetic Fields .3-9
3.2.5 Ferromagnetic Material Characteristics .3-10
SECTION III MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION EQUIPMENT .3-14
3.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection Equipment and Materials .3-14
3.3.1 Selection of Magnetic Particle Inspection Equipment .3-14
3.3.2 Categories of Magnetic Particle Inspection Equipment.3-14
3.3.3 Inspection Equipment Accessories.3-17
3.3.4 Special Purpose Equipment.3-17
3.3.5 Field Strength Measurement Devices .3-18
3.3.6 Understanding and Selecting Magnetic Particle Inspection Materials .3-20
SECTION IV MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION APPLICATIONS.3-27
3.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection Application Methods .3-27
3.4.1 Inspection Preparation .3-27
3.4.2 Magnetic Particle Inspection Techniques .3-29
3.4.3 Selecting a Magnetizing Current .3-30
3.4.5 Field Strength Measurement Techniques.3-39
3.4.6 Methods of Particle Application .3-41
3.4.7 Wet Fluorescent Inspection Technique.3-50
3.4.8 Portable Magnetic Particle Inspection .3-51
3.4.9 Special Magnetization Techniques.3-53
3.4.10 Multidirectional Magnetization .3-55
3.4.11 Demagnetization .3-55
3.4.12 Post Inspection Cleaning.3-62
3.4.13 Magnetic Rubber Inspection .3-63
SECTION V MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION INTERPRETATIONS .3-73
3.5 Magnetic Particle Inspection Interpretation.3-73
3.5.1 Formation of Discontinuities and their Indications.3-73
3.5.3 Basic Steps of Inspection .3-75
3.5.4 Classes of Discontinuities .3-80
3.5.5 Non-Relevant Indications .3-98
3.5.6 Interpretation and Elimination of Non-Relevant Indications.3-103
3.5.7 Methods of Recording MPI Indications .3-103
SECTION VI PROCESS CONTROL OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION .3-106
3.6 Magnetic Particle Process Control.3-106
3.6.1 Purpose and Scope .3-106
3.6.3 Causes of System Degradation .3-106
3.6.4 Frequency of Process Control.3-107
3.6.5 Evaluating the Magnetic Particle Process .3-107
3.6.6 Evaluating Equipment Effectiveness .3-107
3.6.7 Evaluating Material Effectiveness .3-113
3.6.8 Additional Tests for Water Baths .3-118
3.6.9 Disposition for Nonconformance Materials.3-119
3.6.10 Magnetic Particle Process Checklist.3-119
SECTION VII MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION EQUATIONS .3-121
3.7 Magnetic Particle Equations.3-121
3.7.1 Rule-of-Thumb Formulas.3-121
3.7.2 Cross-Sectional Area .3-121
3.7.3 Calculating Coil Current .3-122
SECTION VIII MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION SAFETY.3-126
3.8 Magnetic Particle Safety .3-126
3.8.1 Safety Requirements.3-126
3.8.2 General Precautions.3-126
3.8.4 Wet Suspension Precautions .3-126
3.8.5 Arcing Precautions .3-126
3.8.7 UV-A Black Light Hazards.3-126
3.8.8 Hazards of Aerosol Cans .3-127
3.8.9 Magnetic Rubber Precautions .3-127
4 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION METHOD.4-1
SECTION I EDDY CURRENT TESTING ET METHOD .4-1
4.1 General Capabilities of ET.4-1
4.1.1 Introduction to ET .4-1
4.1.2 Definition of Eddy Current .4-2
4.1.3 Inspection With Eddy Current .4-2
4.1.4 Limitations of Eddy Current Method .4-2
4.1.5 Variables Affecting Eddy Currents.4-2
4.1.6 Eddy Current Techniques.4-3
4.1.7 Effect of Conductivity on Eddy Currents.4-4
4.1.8 Crack Detection in Non-Ferromagnetic Materials .4-9
4.1.9 Phase Lag at Depth .4-11
SECTION II EDDY CURRENT PRINCIPLES AND THEORY.4-13
4.2 Principles and Theory of ET.4-13
4.2.1 Materials and Processes .4-13
SECTION III EDDY CURRENT EQUIPMENT TYPES.4-27
4.3.2 Components of an ET System .4-27
4.3.3 Eddy Current Subsystems .4-28
4.3.4 Functions of the Eddy Current Instrument.4-31
4.3.5 General Requirements .4-31
4.3.6 Specific Instrumentation Requirements .4-31
4.3.7 Special Circuits and Processes.4-33
4.3.8 Amplitude Detection.4-33
4.3.9 Multi-Frequency Eddy Current Systems .4-33
4.3.10 Pulsed Eddy Current Techniques.4-33
4.3.11 Metal Thickness Measurements .4-33
4.3.12 Presentations and Displays.4-33
4.3.14 Cathode Ray Tube CRT Display .4-33
4.3.16 Linear Time Base Display .4-34
4.3.18 Impedance Plane Eddy Current Test Equipment .4-34
4.3.19 Digital Equipment.4-34
4.3.20 Mechanical Scanning.4-34
4.3.21 Multi-Frequency Testing Techniques .4-34
4.3.22 Dual Frequency Testing .4-34
4.3.23 Pulsed Eddy Current Testing .4-34
4.3.24 Low Frequency ET.4-35
4.3.25 Barkhausen Noise Testing of Ferromagnetic Materials.4-35
4.3.26 Alpha-Case on Titanium .4-35
4.3.27 Titanium Aluminide .4-35
4.3.28 Magneto-Optic Imaging MOI.4-35
4.3.29 Application of Advanced Techniques.4-35
SECTION IV APPLICATION OF ET.4-36
4.4.3 Modulation Analysis.4-37
4.4.4 Frequency Response.4-38
4.4.5 Inspection of Fastener Holes.4-40
4.4.6 Fastener Hole Inspection Equipment .4-40
4.4.7 Lift-Off Compensation for Bolt-Hole Inspection.4-40
4.4.8 Sensitivity Settings .4-41
4.4.10 Bolt Hole Preparation.4-41
4.4.11 Probe to Edge Spacing .4-41
4.4.12 Fixtures and Guides.4-42
4.4.13 Fastener Holes Non-Removable Fasteners .4-42
4.4.14 Probe Selection .4-42
4.4.15 Standards for Nonremovable Fastener Holes .4-42
4.4.16 Fillets and Rounded Corner .4-42
4.4.17 Impedance Diagrams .4-43
4.4.19 Frequency Selection .4-48
4.4.20 Probe Selection .4-48
4.4.21 Corrosion Reference Standards.4-48
4.4.22 Inspection Procedure-Corrosion Detection .4-48
4.4.23 Part Preparation .4-48
4.4.24 Field Measurement of Conductivity .4-48
4.4.25 Conductivity of Aluminum Alloys .4-48
4.4.26 Heat Treatment Effects on Aluminum Conductivity .4-49
4.4.27 Discrepancies in Aluminum Alloy Heat Treatment.4-49
4.4.28 Applications of Conductivity Measurement .4-49
4.4.29 Conductivity Measurement.4-50
4.4.30 Equipment for Magnetic Materials .4-50
4.4.31 Effects of Variations in Material Properties.4-50
4.4.32 Effects of Variations in Test Conditions .4-51
4.4.34 Inspection Material .4-52
4.4.36 Crack Detection .4-52
4.4.37 Probe Selection .4-52
4.4.38 Lift-Off Effects .4-56
4.4.39 Lift-Off Compensation Methods.4-56
4.4.40 Effects of Crack Location on Detectability.4-60
4.4.41 Effects of Scanning Techniques on Detection .4-62
4.4.42 Reference Standards for Cracks.4-64
4.4.43 Thickness Measurement .4-70
4.4.44 Measurement of Total Metal Thickness .4-71
SECTION V INTERPRETING EDDY CURRENT SIGNALS.4-76
4.5.2 Evaluation of Crack Indications.4-76
4.5.3 Effect of Scan Rate and Pattern.4-77
4.5.4 Openings, Large Holes, and Cutouts .4-78
4.5.5 Conductivity Measurement.4-78
4.5.6 Inspection Procedures.4-78
4.5.7 Calibration for Measuring Conductivity Values .4-79
SECTION VI EDDY CURRENT PROCESS CONTROL.4-80
SECTION VII EDDY CURRENT EQUATIONS .4-81
4.7 Tables and Equations .4-81
4.7.6 Depth of Penetration .4-92
4.7.8 Characteristic Frequency .4-93
4.7.10 Calculating Flaw Frequency for Setting Filters .4-93
4.7.11 Measurement of Conductivity.4-94
SECTION VIII EDDY CURRENT SAFETY.4-95
4.8.1 Safety Requirements.4-95
4.8.2 General Precautions.4-95
5 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION METHOD .5-1
SECTION I GENERAL CAPABILITIES OF ULTRASONIC INSPECTION .5-1
5.1.1 Introduction to Ultrasonic Inspection .5-1
5.1.2 Development of Ultrasonics.5-1
5.1.3 Ultrasonic Testing.5-1
SECTION II PRINCIPLES AND THEORY OF ULTRASONIC INSPECTION.5-2
5.2.1 Characteristics of Ultrasonic Energy .5-2
5.2.2 Generation and Receiving of Ultrasonic Vibrations .5-2
5.2.3 Modes of Ultrasonic Vibration .5-3
5.2.4 Refraction and Mode Conversion .5-5
5.2.5 Ultrasonic Inspection Variables .5-7
5.2.6 Sound Beam Characteristics.5-8
SECTION III ULTRASONIC INSPECTION EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS .5-12
5.3.1 Ultrasonic Instruments.5-12
5.3.3 Specialized Transducers .5-24
5.3.6 Inspection Standards.5-34
5.3.7 Bonded Structure Reference Standards .5-34
5.3.8 Thickness Measurement Equipment .5-36
SECTION IV ULTRASONIC INSPECTION APPLICATION .5-38
5.4.1 Guidelines for Inspector Familiarization .5-38
5.4.2 Basic Ultrasonic Inspection.5-38
5.4.3 Ultrasonic Reflections .5-39
5.4.4 Data Presentation Methods.5-40
5.4.6 Common Inspection Techniques.5-42
5.4.7 Ultrasonic Technique Development.5-47
5.4.8 Distance Amplitude Correction DAC Curve .5-49
5.4.9 Attenuation Correction Transfer.5-50
5.4.10 Inspection of Bonded Structures.5-56
5.4.11 Thickness Measurement .5-56
5.4.12 Calibration and Thickness Measurement.5-57
SECTION V ULTRASONIC INSPECTION INTERPRETATION.5-59
5.5.1 Evaluation of Discontinuity Indications .5-59
5.5.2 Types of Discontinuity Indications.5-59
5.5.3 Test Part Variables .5-65
5.5.4 Discontinuity Variables .5-68
5.5.5 Inspection Coverage of Bonded Structures .5-68
5.5.6 Inspection Methods for Bonded Structures .5-70
5.5.7 Techniques Associated With Instruments Dedicated to Bond Inspection.5-78
5.5.8 Thickness Measurement Test Part Preparation .5-82
5.5.9 Thickness Measurement Considerations.5-82
SECTION VI ULTRASONIC INSPECTION PROCESS CONTROLS.5-83
5.6.1 Ultrasonic Process Control Requirements .5-83
5.6.2 Reference Standard Configuration .5-83
5.6.3 System Equipment Checks .5-87
5.6.4 Transducer Verifications .5-96
SECTION VII ULTRASONIC INSPECTION EQUATIONS .5-101
5.7.3 Determining the Angle of Incidence in Plastic to Generate 45-Degree Shear Wave in Aluminum .5-101
5.7.6 Calculating Acoustic Impedance.5-102
5.7.7 Thickness Measurement Correlation Factor .5-105
SECTION VIII ULTRASONIC INSPECTION SAFETY.5-107
5.8.1 Safety Requirements.5-107
5.8.2 General Precautions.5-107
5.8.3 Ultrasonic Inspection.5-107
6 RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION METHOD.6-1
SECTION I RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION METHOD .6-1
6.1 General Capabilities of Radiographic Inspection.6-1
6.1.1 Introduction to Radiographic Inspection .6-1
6.1.2 History of X- and Gamma Radiation .6-2
6.1.3 Factors of Radiographic Inspection .6-3
6.1.4 The Physics of X-rays.6-3
6.1.5 Properties of X- and Gamma Radiation .6-5
6.1.6 Differential Absorption of Radiation in Matter.6-5
6.1.7 Exposure of Film to Radiation.6-7
6.1.8 When to use Radiography.6-8
6.1.9 Unique Properties of Gamma Radiation.6-8
SECTION II PRINCIPLES AND THEORY OF RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION.6-10
6.2 How X-rays Are Produced.6-10
6.2.1 Generating X-Radiation.6-10
6.2.2 Type of Radiation Produced by a Tube Head.6-11
6.2.3 Effects of Voltage and Amperage on X-ray Production.6-12
6.2.4 X-ray Generators .6-13
6.2.5 Intensity and Distribution of an X-ray Beam.6-15
6.2.6 Interaction of Radiation With Matter .6-18
6.2.7 Radiation Energy .6-22
6.2.8 Scatter Radiation.6-23
6.2.9 Material Contrast .6-24
6.2.10 Understanding Radiographic Film .6-24
6.2.11 Fundamentals of Digital Radiography .6-29
SECTION III RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT .6-33
6.3 Radiographic Inspection Equipment .6-33
6.3.1 Types of X-ray Generators.6-33
6.3.2 Types of X-ray Tubes .6-33
6.3.3 Considerations in Choosing Equipment.6-33
6.3.4 Considerations When Operating X-ray Equipment.6-35
6.3.5 Standard Industrial X-ray Equipment in the DoD .6-36
6.3.6 Isotope Source Equipment .6-37
6.3.7 Radiographic Film .6-39
6.3.8 Film Holders, Film Cassettes, and Radiographic Screens .6-44
6.3.9 Quality Indicators .6-47
6.3.10 Radiation Monitoring Devices and Instruments.6-50
6.3.11 Radiographic Processing Equipment .6-53
6.3.12 Film Evaluation Equipment .6-53
6.3.13 Digital Radiographic Viewing, Storage, Archival, and Printing Systems.6-54
SECTION IV APPLICATION OF RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION.6-55
6.4 Effective Radiographic Inspections .6-55
6.4.2 Factors Affecting Image Quality .6-55
6.4.3 Radiographic Sensitivity.6-67
6.4.4 Improving Radiographic Sensitivity .6-71
6.4.6 Radiographic Film .6-79
6.4.8 Preparation for Manual Processing.6-83
6.4.9 Storage of Radiographs .6-83
6.4.10 Processing Chemicals .6-84
6.4.11 Processing Radiographic Film .6-86
6.4.12 Manual Film Processing Procedure .6-94
6.4.13 Automatic Film Processing .6-97
6.4.14 Silver Recovery .6-100
6.4.15 Film Reproduction Technique.6-100
6.4.17 Special Radiographic Techniques .6-102
6.4.18 Digital Radiographic Techniques.6-111
SECTION V INTERPRETATION OF RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION.6-112
6.5 Radiographic Interpretation.6-112
6.5.2 Radiographic Image Quality .6-112
6.5.4 Definition or Detail .6-112
6.5.8 Distortion and Magnification .6-116
6.5.9 Kilovoltage and Processing.6-116
6.5.10 Viewing Radiographs .6-116
6.5.11 Reading Interpreting Radiographs.6-118
6.5.12 Typical Use of Radiography .6-118
6.5.14 Casting Defects.6-120
6.5.16 Welding Defects and Conditions .6-128
6.5.17 In-Service Inspections .6-145
6.5.19 Radiographic Standards.6-146
6.5.20 Digital Radiographic Image Analysis.6-146
SECTION VI PROCESS CONTROL OF RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION.6-149
6.6 Radiographic Process Control.6-149
6.6.1 Scope and Purpose .6-149
6.6.2 Radiographic Process Control Requirements .6-149
6.6.3 Process Control in the Darkroom .6-149
6.6.4 Controlling the Development Process .6-153
SECTION VII RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION EQUATIONS .6-155
6.7 Radiographic Equations.6-155
6.7.2 Inverse Square Law.6-155
6.7.3 Source-to-Film Distance SFD .6-155
6.7.5 Logarithms for Density and Exposure Calculations .6-156
6.7.6 Material Contrast Factor.6-159
6.7.7 Image Unsharpness.6-159
SECTION VIII RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION SAFETY.6-161
6.8 Scope and Purpose of Radiation Protection .6-161
6.8.2 Responsibilities .6-161
6.8.3 ALL Qualifications of Civilian Industrial Radiographers.6-166
6.8.4 ALL Industrial Radiographic Safety Training.6-167
6.8.5 ALL Radiation Protection .6-169
6.8.6 Industrial Radiographic Operations .6-180
6.8.7 Industrial Radiographic Installation Classifications .6-181
6.8.8 Mandatory Operating Procedures.6-187
6.8.9 NDI Facility Design and Modification.6-193
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